describe the four layers of the gi tract

The third layer with high autonomy is defined as semiautonomous navigation, transferring the decision priority to the system. Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus have a dense sheath of collagen fibers called the adventitia. Three C. Four Correct D. Five The tissue layers that compose the walls of the GI tract are: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = "to nourish") is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. A cross-section of the abdomen shows the relationship between abdominal organs and the peritoneum (darker lines). The gastrointestinal wall is inflamed in a number of conditions. Reflect upon the structure of the bowel layers itself and describe the role each of these layers has in relation to peristalsis. from your Reading List will also remove any { "22.5A:_Mucosa" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.5B:_Submucosa" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.5C:_Muscularis" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.5D:_Serosa" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, { "00:_Front_Matter" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.01:_Overview_of_the_Digestive_System" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.02:_Nervous_System_of_the_Digestive_System" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.03:_The_Peritoneum" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.04:_The_Alimentary_Canal" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.05:_Layers_of_the_Alimentary_Canal" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.07:_The_Liver" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.08:_The_Gallbladder" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.09:_The_Pancreas" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.10:_The_Small_Intestine" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.11:_The_Large_Intestine" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.12:_Chemical_Digestion" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.13:_Absorption" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.14:_Phases_of_Digestion" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "22.6:_The_Stomach" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "zz:_Back_Matter" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, [ "article:topic", "license:ccbysa", "showtoc:no" ], https://med.libretexts.org/@app/auth/3/login?returnto=https%3A%2F%2Fmed.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FAnatomy_and_Physiology%2FAnatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)%2F22%253A_Digestive_System%2F22.05%253A_Layers_of_the_Alimentary_Canal%2F22.5A%253A_Mucosa, \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}}}\) \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{#1}}} \)\(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)\(\newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\), status page at https://status.libretexts.org, Describe the structure and function of the mucosa of the GI tract. These tissues serve to hold the alimentary canal in place near the ventral surface of the vertebral column. What are the layers of mucosa? How does this change in consistency facilitate your gaining nutrients from food? When your great grandparents and even your parents were young, the mortality from peritonitis was high. If a person becomes overly anxious, sympathetic innervation of the alimentary canal is stimulated, which can result in a slowing of digestive activity. Within the mouth, the teeth and tongue begin mechanical digestion, whereas the salivary glands begin chemical digestion. Although the small intestine is the workhorse of the system, where the majority of digestion occurs, and where most of the released nutrients are absorbed into the blood or lymph, each of the digestive system organs makes a vital contribution to this process (Figure 23.2). Food, mucus, and digestive juices pass through the lumen, and the mucosa comes in direct contact with digested food (chyme). The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical. In turn, the digestive system provides the nutrients to fuel endocrine function. Table 23.1 gives a quick glimpse at how these other systems contribute to the functioning of the digestive system. This tube begins at the mouth and terminates at the anus. Identify the segments of the large intestine and the four regions of the colon. Citation: Nigam Y et al (2019) Gastrointestinal tract 4: anatomy and role of the jejunum and ileum. Additionally, it serves as a conduit for a dense branching network of nerves, the submucosal plexus, which functions as described below. then you must include on every physical page the following attribution: If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a digital format, Water vapor creates all clouds and precipitation. Arteries supply the digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, and veins drain the digestive tract. then you must include on every digital page view the following attribution: Use the information below to generate a citation. Notice that the epithelium is in direct contact with the lumen, the space inside the alimentary canal. It is also important for the telecommunication industry to obtain a high profit. Rather, this blood is diverted to the liver where its nutrients are off-loaded for processing before blood completes its circuit back to the heart. Primary dentition is composed of 20 deciduous (baby) teeth. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, Chapter 21. Muscular layer 4. 3. A few milliliters of watery fluid act as a lubricant to minimize friction between the serosal surfaces of the peritoneum. Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. From the inside out they are called the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. Name the four types of teeth and the three main parts of a typical tooth. It is composed of epithelium cells and a thin connective tissue. The blood vessels serving the digestive system have two functions. It is composed of areolar connective tissue. Muscularis: composed of two layers of muscle tissue. Starting from the lumen and moving outwards, these layers are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa, which is continuous with the mesentery (see Figure 23.1.2). Only then does the blood drained from the alimentary canal viscera circulate back to the heart. By the end of this section, you will be able to: The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you eat, release their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body. Also present are goblet cells and endocrine cells. The serosa is a smooth membrane consisting of a thin layer of cells that secrete serous fluid, and a thin layer of connective tissue. 22.5A: Mucosa is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts. The serosa is the portion of the alimentary canal superficial to the muscularis. lamina propria. There are four layers making up our atmosphere: The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. As soon as food enters the mouth, it is detected by receptors that send impulses along the sensory neurons of cranial nerves. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart, Chapter 20. The visceral peritoneum includes multiple large folds that envelope various abdominal organs, holding them to the dorsal surface of the body wall. Specifically, the more anterior parts of the alimentary canal are supplied with blood by arteries branching off the aortic arch and thoracic aorta. 2. The mucosa of the remainder of the GI tract is a delicate layer of simple columnar epithelium designed for absorption and secretion. Removing #book# Rather, this blood is diverted to the liver where its nutrients are off-loaded for processing before blood completes its circuit back to the heart. When you consider that the alimentary canal is exposed to foodborne bacteria and other foreign matter, it is not hard to appreciate why the immune system has evolved a means of defending against the pathogens encountered within it. All digestive organs play integral roles in the life-sustaining process of digestion. This venous network takes the blood into the liver where the nutrients are either processed or stored for later use. describe the four layers of the gi tract. Section of duodenum: This image shows the layers of the duodenum: the serosa, muscularis, submucosa, and mucosa. The mucosa is referred to as a mucous membrane, because mucus production is a characteristic feature of gut epithelium. The organs of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. It is composed of two different regions: the parietal peritoneum, which lines the abdominal wall, and the visceral peritoneum, which envelopes the abdominal organs (Figure 23.4). Lipids are absorbed via lacteals, tiny structures of the lymphatic system. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Four Layers of the Wall Serosa/ Mesentery The outer layer of the GIT is formed by fat and another layer of epithelial cells called mesothelium. The mucosa is a mucous membrane that lines the inside of the digestive tract from mouth to anus. In addition, the mucosa has a thin, smooth muscle layer, called the muscularis mucosa (not to be confused with the muscularis layer, described below). Then, draw AND describe the specific structural and functional differences in the inner lining of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine in the appropriate boxes below. Extrinsic innervations of the alimentary canal are provided by the autonomic nervous system, which includes both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. It is made up of three layers: the epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. Together, these are called accessory organs because they sprout from the lining cells of the developing gut (mucosa) and augment its function; indeed, you could not live without their vital contributions, and many significant diseases result from their malfunction. The five major peritoneal folds are described in Table 23.2. What structure marks the division between the left and right lobe of the liver? The organs of the gastrointestinal tract contain layers of muscles, enabling their walls to move food through the tract by a process called peristalsis, allowing for the . clinicalanatomy.com/mtd/382-layers-of-the-gi-tract, Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/103.0.0.0 Safari/537.36. Mucosa is the moist innermost layer; it lines the cavity of the organ. What is the importance of the mesenteries? This season, you are right on trend if you explore the depths and layers of this often overlooked color. In the esophagus, the epithelium is stratified, squamous, and non-keratinizing, for protective purposes. Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus have a dense sheath of collagen fibers called the adventitia. Along the way, note how the food changes consistency and form. The five major peritoneal folds are described in Table 23.2. (d) The shells are then connected to each other by a metal wire. Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = to nourish) is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. Contains many glands which open into the lumen by way of ducts. The Chemical Level of Organization, Chapter 3. Mucosa Of these, eugenol, had an EC50 of 1.3 M against EBOV and is present in several plants including clove, cinnamon, basil and bay. Copyright 1999 2023 GoDaddy Operating Company, LLC. Hemorrhagic peritonitis occurs after a ruptured tubal pregnancy or traumatic injury to the liver or spleen fills the peritoneal cavity with blood. The space shared between the digestive and respiratory tracts. Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = to nourish) is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. Mouth Four layers of digestive tract walls. David N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis, Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, David Shier, Jackie Butler, John Hole, Ricki Lewis. The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical. Dec 13, 2022 OpenStax. This system exhibited good correlation (r = 0.998) with a slope of 0.989 and intercept of 0.827, displaying good agreement with reference methods and existing parameters present on the market, i.e., YSI 2300 whole blood/plasma analyzer (Yellow Springs . Inflammation of the peritoneum is called peritonitis. In the mouth and pharynx, it consists of skeletal muscle that aids in swallowing. The Cellular Level of Organization, Chapter 4. The mucosa is the innermost layer, and functions in absorption and secretion. The submucosal plexus (plexus of Meissner) lies in the submucosal layer and is responsible for regulating digestive secretions and reacting to the presence of food (see Figure 23.1.2). Stomach. Thus, the location of these organs is described as retroperitoneal. Describe the basic factors in diffusion and passive transport systems. Only through the process of absorption do the nutrients in food enter into and nourish the bodys inner space.. Large intestine. Specifically, the more anterior parts of the alimentary canal are supplied with blood by arteries branching off the aortic arch and thoracic aorta. The first group is the organs that make up the alimentary canal. These enteric neurons are grouped into two plexuses. The stomach acids and enzymes work to break down food which is then released into the small intestine. The muscularis (muscularis externa) is a layer of muscle. The enteric nervous system helps regulate alimentary canal motility and the secretion of digestive juices, thus facilitating digestion. The Tissue Level of Organization, Chapter 6. The mesentery is an extension of the visceral peritoneum that attaches the small intestine to the rear abdominal wall. Which is more efficient in propelling intestinal contents along the digestive tract: peristalsis or segmentation? We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The layers are discussed below, from the inside lining of the tract to the outside lining: The mucosa is a mucous membrane that lines the inside of the digestive tract from mouth to anus. Epithelial cells have a very brief lifespan, averaging from only a couple of days (in the mouth) to about a week (in the gut). Each layer has different tissues and functions. It has four parts- cardiac, fundus, body and pyloric portion. The blood vessels second function is to supply the organs of the alimentary canal with the nutrients and oxygen needed to drive their cellular processes. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/1-introduction, https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-1-overview-of-the-digestive-system, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive glands and accessory organs, Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D for calcium absorption, Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream, Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs, Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and muscle contractions in the digestive tract, Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, Bones help protect and support digestive organs, Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing calcium absorption in the small intestine, Apron-like structure that lies superficial to the small intestine and transverse colon; a site of fat deposition in people who are overweight, Anchors the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and inferior border of the diaphragm, Suspends the stomach from the inferior border of the liver; provides a pathway for structures connecting to the liver, Vertical band of tissue anterior to the lumbar vertebrae and anchoring all of the small intestine except the initial portion (the duodenum), Attaches two portions of the large intestine (the transverse and sigmoid colon) to the posterior abdominal wall, Identify the organs of the alimentary canal from proximal to distal, and briefly state their function, Identify the accessory digestive organs and briefly state their function, Describe the four fundamental tissue layers of the alimentary canal, Contrast the contributions of the enteric and autonomic nervous systems to digestive system functioning, Explain how the peritoneum anchors the digestive organs. The small intestine has four tissue layers: The serosa is the outermost layer of the intestine. The main function of the organs of the alimentary canal is to nourish the body. All rights reserved. EpitheliumIn the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and anal canal, the epithelium is primarily a non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. On the mucosa layer, small finger-like projections called villi and microvilli help to increase surface area for nutrient absorption. While the colon has two layers like the small intestine, its longitudinal layer is segregated into three narrow parallel bands, the tenia coli, which make it look like a series of pouches rather than a simple tube. Contains lymph tissue. An Introduction to the Human Body, Chapter 2. It is the absorptive and secretory layer of the GI tract. Describe the four layers of the GI tract 1. Notice that the epithelium is in direct contact with the lumen, the space inside the alimentary canal. A broad layer of dense connective tissue, it connects the overlying mucosa to the underlying muscularis. Accessory digestive organs, despite their name, are critical to the function of the digestive system. Crown, neck, and root. An abdominal series provides valuable information as to the presence of free intra- or retroperitoneal air. Contains the submucosal enteric neural plexus that controls GI secretions and localized blood flow. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon, Next: 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients; absorption of nutrients, Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive glands and accessory organs, Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D for calcium absorption, Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream, Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs, Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and muscle contractions in the digestive tract, Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, Bones help protect and support digestive organs, Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing calcium absorption in the small intestine, Apron-like structure that lies superficial to the small intestine and transverse colon; a site of fat deposition in people who are overweight, Anchors the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and inferior border of the diaphragm, Suspends the stomach from the inferior border of the liver; provides a pathway for structures connecting to the liver, Vertical band of tissue anterior to the lumbar vertebrae and anchoring all of the small intestine except the initial portion (the duodenum), Attaches two portions of the large intestine (the transverse and sigmoid colon) to the posterior abdominal wall, Describe the organs of the alimentary canal from proximal to distal, and briefly state their function, Identify the accessory digestive organs and briefly state their function, Describe the four fundamental tissue layers of the alimentary canal and the function of each layer, Contrast the contributions of the enteric and autonomic nervous systems to digestive system functioning, Explain how the peritoneum anchors the digestive organs. the pyloric sphincter. Lamina propriaIn addition to loose connective tissue, the lamina propria contains numerous blood and lymphatic vessels that transport nutrients absorbed through the alimentary canal to other parts of the body. It is composed of two different regions: the parietal peritoneum, which lines the abdominal wall, and the visceral peritoneum, which envelopes the abdominal organs (Figure 23.1.3). These intestinal veins, constituting the hepatic portal system, are unique; they do not return blood directly to the heart. June 30, 2022 . The muscularis mucosae, the outer layer of the mucosa, is a thin layer of smooth muscle responsible for generating local movements. It consists of areolar connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers. The inner shell carries a charge +2q, and the outer shell carries a charge -q. To appreciate just how demanding the digestive process is on the cardiovascular system, consider that while you are resting and digesting, about one-fourth of the blood pumped with each heartbeat enters arteries serving the intestines. Muscularis: voluntary swallowing 4. supports avascular mucosal epithelium. Except where otherwise noted, textbooks on this site This is the . Starting from the lumen and moving outwards, these layers are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa, which is continuous with the mesentery (see Figure 23.3). The veins that collect nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine (where most absorption occurs) empty into the hepatic portal system. OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, spleen, and pancreas. From the inside out they are called: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. 10. secretory function in stomach. Choose a modest trial pack with just two or four candies if you want to try these gummies out quickly. Once food products enter the small intestine, the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas release secretionssuch as bile and enzymesessential for digestion to continue. 2023 Course Hero, Inc. All rights reserved. This tube begins at the mouth and terminates at the anus. The submucosa is found beneath the mucosa layer. The Peripheral Nervous System, Chapter 18. Thus, the location of these organs is described as retroperitoneal. This process of rapid renewal helps preserve the health of the alimentary canal, despite the wear and tear resulting from continued contact with foodstuffs. Contribution of Other Body Systems to the Digestive System. At the same time, the digestive system provides nutrients to the heart muscle and vascular tissue to support their functioning. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages. These tissues serve to hold the alimentary canal in place near the ventral surface of the vertebral column. The computer governs all system modules and gives instruction according to real-time analysis of feedback. The main organs that make up the digestive system (in order of their function) are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. In electrostatic equilibrium, what is the charge on (a) the outer surface of the inner shell, (b) the inner surface of the outer shell, and (c) the outer surface of the outer shell?

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